Antenna Systems For Radar Applications Information Technology Essay

Antenna Systems For Radar Applications Information Technology Essay The project will examine a variety of beam forming techniques which can be used in order to make radar electronic beam steering feasible. Commonly used mechanical rotating antennas for a 360 degrees views coverage are difficult to operate and expensive to implement. Thus, electronic beam forming is an attractive solution. This report is mostly interested in radar applications performing in 24 GHz frequencies, which can be used by car industries, in order to avoid obstacles on the road, for example, or security radars, covering 360 degrees views. Radar 2.1. Radar Definition Radar means radio detection and ranging, determining thus the original and still significant application of radar. The main reason for using radar is to estimate certain characteristics, such as the position, motion and presence of the specific surroundings in which the user is interested. Radar is actually a sensor which transmits electromagnetic energy into the surroundings and detects energy which is reflected by objects. If a directive antenna transmits electromagnetic energy through a narrow beam it is easy to predict the bearing of an object because of the energy reflected of it. The time needed for the transmission and reception of the energy represents the distance between the radar and the object. [21] Kinds of Radar There is a great variety of radars. Some radars provide navigation aid and safety on small boats and their size might be less than 15cm. Others are widely used by the police in order to measure the speed of the vehicles. Moreover, there are some radars so large as to cover many kilometers of land, long arrays of antennas and they all work together in order to supervise the flight of astronomical bodies or space vehicles. In addition, there are many radars at airport, with a more common size and rotating antennas. Finally, there are several radars, more complex, for mobile use. [21] Radars can be classified in many categories. As much as the waveforms are concerned, radars can be classified in 2 categories, they can be either Continuous Wave (CW) or Pulsed Radars (PR). CW radars use different antennas for transmission and receiving, and they emit electromagnetic energy continuously. Unmodulated CW radars precisely determine the target radial velocity and angular position, while information about the target range have to use some form of modulation in order to be gathered. In order to search and track target velocity, primarily unmodulated CW radars are used. Pulse Radars (PR) use a series of pulsed waveforms, mostly with modulation and can be separated based on the Pulse Repetition Frequency (PRF) in 3 categories, high, medium and low PRF radars. CW and PR radars are both able to determine target range and velocity by using different forms of modulation. [23] Continuous Wave Radar (CW) CW radar sets continuously transmit a high-frequency signal. Then, the received signal is permanently processed. In such a system, two problems have to be solved: avoid a direct connection between the transmitted and received energy (feedback connection), conduct the received echoes into a time system capable of doing run time measurements. A feedback connection can be prevented by: spatial separation   between the transmitting and receiving antenna frequency dependent separation  by the  Doppler-frequency  during the measurement of speeds. [4] Frequency Modulated Continuous Wave Radar (FMCW) CW radars are not capable of measuring distance, because the timing mark necessary lacks, preventing thus the system to time precisely the transmit and receive cycle and exchange the measured round-trip-time into range. This problem can be solved by using phase or frequency shifting techniques. As far as the frequency shifting method is concerned, a signal is used, which continuously changes in frequency around a specific reference, in order to identify stationary objects and measure the range. In order to achieve an up-and-down or a sawtooth-like alternation in frequency, Frequency-Modulated  Continuous  Wave radars (FMCW) are used, changing the frequency in a linear fashion. By constantly changing the frequency, there will be a difference between the frequency of the echo signal and the one transmitted. Thus, the difference  transmitters frequency shift will be relative to round trip time  and so the range  of the target too. The frequencies can be examined, when a reflec tion is received, and by comparing the received echo with the actual step of transmitted frequency, a range calculation like using pulses can be done. Consequently, the range of the stationary objective is given by comparing the transmitted and received frequencies. It is difficult to make a broadcaster able to send out random frequencies cleanly, and as an alternative, this frequency-modulated continuous-wave radar, use an easily changeable ramp of frequencies up and down. If the frequency modification is linearly over a broad area, by making a comparison among frequencies within this region, the distance can be easily determined. It is possible to measure only the complete value of the difference and thus, the results with increasing frequency modification signify a decreasing frequency change at a static scenario. [4] Characteristics e of FMCW radar: measuring the distance is potential by comparing the definite frequency of the received signal to a given reference (regularly direct the transmitted signal) the time required for transmitting a signal as longer than the duration of the measurement of the installed maximum range of the radar [4] By selecting the appropriate frequency deviation per time unit, the radar resolution can be different, and choosing the frequency shift duration, the maximum range can be varied. For instance, if the linear frequency of radar increases over 1  ms duration, the time-limited maximum range might be 150  km. If the maximum frequency deviation is 65 MHz, then stay about 433 Hz per meter for the filter for analysis. It is important that the amount of frequency modulation is considerably greater than the estimated Doppler shift otherwise, the outcome will be affected. The most common and easy way to modulate the wave is by linearly increasing the frequency. In this way, the transmitted frequency will change at a continuous rate. If a single antenna is used, a ferrite circulator has to separate the transmit and receive. However, using to different antennas, one for transmission and one for reception, is easier and cheaper to perform. On a ordinary substrate transmitting and receiving ant enna are placed exactly above each other as an antenna array. The direction of the linear  polarization  is rotated against each other by 180  degrees. An extra shielding plate reduced a direct cross talk (i.e. a direct coupling of both antennas) usually. From this direct coupling, arises a signal, which is suppressed due to the same frequency, since the measurement is performed to as a frequency difference between transmit and receive signal. [4] Radar Beamforming In order to create a beam with the appropriate and desired characteristics, radar beamforming, which combines signals from a set of sources, is essential. As much as an RF antenna system is concerned, each source may be a single array element or a subarray. A steerable beam is able to control the combination process electronically. Moreover, it can be replicated so as to create various independent beams, limited by hardware difficulty, complication and losses. [22] 3.1. Analog Beamforming A feed system is a network used in order to connect the antenna input to its radiators. The main reason for using such a system is to transmit power to the elements or collect signal from them. (transmit mode, or receive mode). While being on transmit or receiving mode, the required phase and amplitude excitations needed for the radiation performance must be maintained. The feed network is able to scan the beam, select among different antenna beam shapes and communicate with active sectors, by containing several switches and other devices, appropriate to execute such processes. Moreover, the feed network may contain amplifiers and other active devices. There are also many new developments, such as Switch matrix systems, Butler matrix feed systems and Vector transfer matrix systems, but the most significant are the RF lens feed systems. [1] 3.1.1. RF Lens One of the biggest problems when using a transmission line feed network is that amount of losses. Therefore, systems which are based on RF/optical principles are preferred. There is a large variety of RF Lens and many RF/optical feed systems also incorporate different types of beam scanning functions. RF refractive lenses are similar to their classical optical counterparts, which function by using the refraction amongst different materials. When using constrained lenses, the waves are forced to follow some specific paths, like in a geodesic lens. Another type of lens is the bootlace lens which in which the signals between the input surface and the output surface are routed on transmission lines. Occasionally, a conformal array feed uses different combinations of lens types, or lenses and matrices. Small array antenna elements are used by an RF lens as input/output probes that couple to the lens region. These probes exist in an array environment which is characterized by reflections a nd mutual coupling and the associated design problems. In particular in circular lens designs, there can also be standing waves caused by reflections from the opposite side of the lens. Another problem is the variation of the element phase center with frequency. [1] Rotman Lens A Rotman lens is a parallel-plate structure used as the beam forming network (BFN) for a linear array of radiating antenna elements. It is easy to form a beam forming network suitable for use with a planar array, by stacking numerous lenses. Rotman lenses are preferred because of the advantages that they offer, such as ease of manufacture, light weight, low cost, monolithic construction and availability of many beams at the same time. Rotman lens is capable of extremely wide-band operation, because it is a true time-delay device which produces frequency-independent beam steering. Because of these characteristic, Rotman lens is a possible candidate for use in multi-beam satellite-based applications. [2] The electrical area that a Rotman lens occupies is very large (usually hundreds of square wavelengths) and because of this, an entirely precise analysis is not possible. The planar circuit approximation applies to structures which are electrically thin in one dimension, like parallel-plate lenses. The effort required for their analysis is reduced to that of solving a (line) integral equation for the relationship between the RF voltage and current at the periphery of the structure. [2] The R-2R Lens The R-2R lens feed (Figure 1) has feed ports on the perimeter of a parallel-plate lens with radius R, in order to illuminate the output ports on the opposite side of the lens. These output ports are linked to the element ports on the 2R radius circular array with cables of equal length. The number of feeding ports is half the number of element ports. This type of arrangement allows all feed points to be ideally focused, resulting in a plane-phase front. In order to scan the antenna beam at angle ÃŽÂ ¦, the feed point has to be moved an angle 2ÃŽÂ ¦. One illumination taper can be achieved, by combining three to four adjacent feed ports, resulting in lowered sidelobes. [1] Figure1: The R-2R lens feed system [1] It is essential to add several switches on the lens ports, in order to scan the beam. One has to be allowed to use numerous beam ports at the same time in order to achieve a multiple beam generation. This problem could be solved by using half the lens for beam ports and connect the other half to a 90 ° arc array. R-2R lens are considered to be a special case of the Rotman lens, which is typically used for linear array feeds. Furthermore, for circular arcs up to 90 °, the Rotman lens can be used. Actually, the curvature does not have to be circular, as the design in general, curvature of lens input and output lines, cable lengths, and so on can be optimized together with the array shape. It is possible to achieve ideal focusing in the Rotman lens only for three beam directions. [1] The R-kR Lens The R-kR lens feed system has as much ports on the lens as there are radiators on the circular array. In order to cover 360 ° views, the lens ports have to be used more than once, both as feeding points and for connecting to the radiating elements. In order to achieve this, switches are used, circulators (Figure 2), or two lenses at the same time. The radiators placed on radius R are connected by cables of the same length to the ports of the circular lens with radius kR. When k is about 1.9, a planar phase front for rays within a sector of about 120 ° is obtained. This shows that the lens is nearly two times the size of the circular array, thus, it cant fit inside the circular array if it is not filled with a dielectric with permittivity more than 4. If broadband radiators are used, the R-kR lens-fed circular array can be very broadband. The bandwidth could be limited by using switches or circulators. The phase center of the radiators is a design parameter of critical importance and must be located on the design radius R. [1] Figure 2: The R-kR lens, here with circulators. [1] In order to limit the focusing performance, several types of element have a phase center which is able to change position with frequency. [1] Mode-Controlled Lenses A radial transmission line which forms a circular parallel-plate lens is possible to act like a circular array feed. If it is excited by several probes placed close to the center, the modes generated will direct the energy toward a part of the lens periphery. Therefore, by controlling the modes using phase shifters or a hybrid network connected to the input probes commutates the excitation. Then it is easy to connect these pick-up probes to the radiating elements, via additional phase shifters if needed. [1] Luneburg lenses In order to achieve wide angle scanning, the Luneburg lens, is the appropriate and desired device. As far as land mobile operations are concerned, an antenna able to scan in a two-dimensional (2D) plane is required, particularly if the scan angle is large. The Luneburg Lenses are used in order to provide single or multiple mechanically scanned beams, at microwave frequencies. Nevertheless, because of the advent of phased arrays the lenses are now usually used for radar applications as a wide angle passive reflector. This is why nowadays there are appropriate lens configurations which can be established by permitting the inclusion of controllable dielectric material into a Luneburg Lens so as to make the lens suitable for electronic scanning at 24 Ghz. [1] Digital Beamforming When performing beamforming in the digital area, it is called digital beamforming. The realization can demand huge volumes of digital information to be processed at extremely high rates, but current improvements in processing hardware have made Digital Beamforming a useful alternative to RF combining in many ways. Moreover, it has allowed the formation of systems which were not practical with legacy technologies. Below are presented the benefits of Digital Beamforming. [22] Simplicity of hardware If the RF and analog hardware becomes a minimal device, collecting data, it would be an ideal case. Then, all the difficult and complicated process of the signal is done in firmware, which is a more flexible and gainful way of processing comparing to RF plumbing. In addition, it is possible that the overall size of the system, as long as its weight, will be reduced a lot, and this is particularly significant in airborne systems. [22 Replication Digital beamforming is the best option when many independent beams are needed. By using digital beamforming, it is easy to form each beam completely digitally, without any analog or RF hardware further required. The quantity of beams like these is then partially limited by power, speed and synchronization of the processing elements, which become even more cost-effective and flexible each year. [22] Scanning and Tracking It is not possible to steer electronically each beam (e.g., to track a moving source). However, by using the precisely same stream of digital samples from each antenna element, it is potential to turn each independent beam to a different source. Thus, it is easy to reduce extremely difficult receiver scenarios to firmware buildings blocks which are now usual. [22] Flexibility These digital systems can be adapted without any difficulty to varying requirements, such as multipath combination, application bandwidth, tracking requirements or interference rejection. A SMOP (Simple Matter of Programming) is able to perform numerous adaptations. [22] Radar An array antenna which is a low Cost Transmit/Receive one provides agile beams to track multiple targets at the same time. [22] Anything that can be done by using an analog beam forming can easily be done digitally too. Choosing to do everything digitally might lead to several difficulties because of the extreme requirements on data transmission, storage, and signal processing. However, nowadays such problems are easily solved because of the rapid growth of computer power, either software or hardware. When using an analog reception beam forming, the element signals are combined with weights determined by feed networks and/or phase and amplitude controlled receiver modules. In digital computer, it is possible to do the same operations on the element signals just by converting analog signals to digital ones. Thus, the formation of many receive beams can take place at the same time, without feed losses, which are common when using analog systems. Moreover, the element modules in the digital systems have low noise amplifiers (LNA) preceding the analog-to-digital conversion. A lossless beam forming is created as t he LNAs set the signal-to noise ratio, so that it is not affected by transmission losses. The advantages of a digital beam forming in this case are not so obvious. After the transmission of the beam, it is not possible to change the beam shape or to perform any other signal processing. Nevertheless, digital synthesis of the transmitted waveform on the element level combined with DBF on reception can offer remarkable system capabilities in terms of, for example, LPI (low probability of intercept) radar with jamming resistance. A wide transmission beam illuminating the area of interest and multiple, narrow, digitally formed receive beams has also been suggested for LPI systems-ubiquitous radar and OLPI radar (Omnidirectional LPI). There are many aspects which can best be performed digitally, such as the need for amplitude and phase control, polarization control, switching of the active sector, compensating for element patterns in the beam steering algorithms and calibration. A DBF ant enna system has a combination of numerous subsystems and components. Receiver channel imbalance, , A/D converter offset errors, amplitude and phase errors and frequency dependent errors are some of the possible imperfections in these subsystems and component which can influence the performance of the overall system. The type and requirements of each processing used influence the importance of such imperfections. Usually, array calibration and special error correction schemes are included in the antenna system design. [1] 3.3. Beamforming Transmitter Architectures Several beamforming transmitter architectures exist, suitable for integrated circuit implementation as well as many well-known topologies for separate implementations of phased array transmitters. The goal is topologies appropriate for performance in consumer products at 24 GHz. Electrical beamforming is achievable if the phase of the signal to each antenna element in the array is separately set. Moreover, a larger number of patterns can be achieved and the sidelobe level can be reduced compared to uniform power distribution if the power to each antenna element is set individually. [3] 3.3.1. Baseband Phase Shifting In the baseband phase shifting architecture the phases and amplitudes of the signals are created in the digital baseband. The phase control is very accurate, but the architecture demands an entire signal path between the baseband and the antenna for each element (Figure 3). Also, the architecture can be called digital array, because the beamforming is being performed in the digital domain. Such an architecture lead in a large hardware cost and power spending because there are many signal paths, but also in big flexibility. As a result, this architecture is perhaps very complex for radar at 24 GHz. In order to transmit individual information in various directions, in MIMO systems (multiple input multiple output), the flexibility of the architecture with parallel paths is available too. [3] Figure 3: Transmitter architecture for baseband phase shifting [3] 3.3.2 Local Oscillator Phase Shifting Phase shifting can occur in the LO path as well (Figure 4) Moreover, it is likely to use phase shifters in the signal path, at IF or RF. Whether performing the phase shift at LO or RF or place them at different places, the same amount of hardware is achievable. If they are placed in the LO path, amplitude variation among dissimilar phase settings is less significant if the mixers are driven hard. In this way, amplitude variation in the LO path will not influence the signal path a lot. Thus, it is easier to implement the phase shift in the LO path. [3] Figure 4: Transmitter architecture for phase shifting in the local oscillator path, polar modulation [3] 3.3.3. Offset Local Oscillator Phase Shifting If the power amplifier and local oscillator are used at the same frequency, injection pulling is possible to occur. It might not be easy to accomplish a sufficient isolation so as to avoid the corruption of the oscillator signal by the PA. To moderate this on an architectural level, offset LO phase shifting may be used as shown in Figure 5. Beamforming transmitters have applications like radar (24 GHz and 77 GHz) and WLAN (60 GHz) which are placed at high frequencies. It is valuable to use the lowest frequencies possible on the chip, and multiply the frequency close to the PA. A reduced VCO frequency makes allows a wider tuning range, and the increasing MOS varactor quality factor. [3] Figure 5: Offset local oscillator phase shifting for beamforming transmitter [3] 3.3.4. Ring Oscillator Based Phase Shifting A ring oscillator which has a tunable phase shift among the oscillating elements is used in such architecture (Figure 6). The tuned oscillators in the ring are separately detuned from their center frequency. The LC-loads is capable of sustaining up to +-90 degrees phase shift. It is important that the phase shift around the ring is constantly equal to 360 degrees, or a multiple thereof. The phase shift among consecutive elements is zero degrees if each oscillating element is non-inverting, and no excess phase shift is introduced in the loop. By putting an excess phase shift of KÃŽÂ ´ degrees it will have as a result a phase shift of ÃŽÂ ´ degrees in each of the equal K oscillators in the loop. [3] Figure 6: Transmitter architecture for variable phase ring oscillator in a phase locked loop [3] 3.3.5. Radio Frequency Phase Shifting The phase shifting which is the most hardware efficient, including numeral building blocks, is to carry it out just before the power amplifier. The power amplifiers are the only circuit components that have to be duplicated (Figure 7). The disadvantage is that the phase shifting is being performed at the highest frequency and signal level in the system. When an envelope modulation scheme is used, the linearity of the phase shifters may be a problem while noise is not as significant when the power level is high. It might be useful to implement the phase shifters at the highest frequency. If transmission lines are used as separate phase shifters, they become shorter with frequency. This is an ordinary architecture in radar systems. Several fixed phase shifts are in that case implemented and switches controlled by selection logic determine the phase shift. Certainly, the transmission lines are linear and thus, these phase shifters can easily be used in envelope modulated systems. Moreover, the delay is stable over a wide bandwidth. A set of fixed phase shifts is then implemented and switches controlled by a selection logic choses the phase shift. Of course the transmission lines are linear so these phase shifters can very well be used in envelope modulated systems. Another advantage is that the delay is constant over a wide bandwidth. [3] Figure 7: Transmitter architecture for phase shifting in the radio frequency path. [3] Applications for 24GHz Radar Sensors Modular 24 GHz Radar Sensor for Digital Beamforming on Transmit and Receive In order to increase the angular resolution, numerous switched transmitters are preferred, as they need less hardware effort. The FMCW radar sensor is the best solution, providing up to eight transmitters, switchable ones, and eight receiving channels which provide parallel receiving, and they all allow digital beadforming. An innovative switching technique via switchable amplifiers is preferred. [5] Four Channel 24-GHz FMCW Radar Sensor with Two-Dimensional Target Localization Capabilities Results on the angular measurements are improved when using an FMCW radar sensor, compared to standard beamforming methods, as far as the target localization is concerned. Furthermore, the determination of other characteristics required will be allowed, such as the range or velocity. [6] . 24-GHz Automotive Radar Transmitter with Digital Beam Steering in 130-nm CMOS (Complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) Many Pas are connected to different antenna elements so as to control the steering of the beam. The output phases of the PAs are controlled separately through 360 degrees by binary weighting of quadrature phases. The circuit has 18 PAs,and each one of them delivers 0 dBm to the antenna, ensuring an output power of 13 dBm. The antenna array, which is constituted of 18 elements, will be 11 cm at 24 GHz and will have 12 dB directivity and a half power beam width of 5 degrees. [7] Design and Performance of a 24-GHz Switch-Antenna Array FMCW Radar System One transmitter, one transmitting antenna, four receiving antennas, one receiving channel and an SP4T switch (single-pole four-throw) are the elements which compose a 24-GHz FMCW radar system. In order to increase the inter-connection loss and create a compact whole size, radio-frequency (RF) and intermediate-frequency (IF) circuits are integrated in the antennas. The receiving antennas are sporadically switched to the receiving channel. Beamforming methods are used in order to evaluate the performance of such a developed system, by estimating the angle, velocity and range. [8] Imaging Radar Sensor Front-End with a Large Transmit Array Automotive applications need medium range imaging radars, such as the 24 GHz imaging radar front-end. In this radar, a large switched transmit antenna array is combined with a coherent FM-CW architecture. It permits two dimensional electronic scanning in range and cross range with excellent crass range resolution over a wide angle of new using very low EIRP. The advantage of using such radar is that it requires just a small number of active millimeter wave components. [9] Novel Photonic Rotman-Lens Design for Radar Phased Array Antennas A new microwave photonic implementation of a Rotman-lens is proposed in this project, providing superior performance and functionality. The scanning unit presented is an optical element, where photo-detectors attached to the transmitting/receiving antennas are the interfaces, doing conversions among the RF signals and their particular optical waves. Actually, the optical module is a photonic Rotman lens, designed like its RF complement. Despite the advance of practicing the solution in a photonic module, the recommended photonic Rotman lens superior design is able to realise a linear phase profile with a varied slope at the output of the lens for any potential spot at the input to the lens. This is contrary to what is presently accessible with the usual RF Rotman lens, where output phase front linearity is achieved for a small quantity of input spots. A better performance is achieved by increasing the curves of the photonic input and output surfaces of the lens, having an off-centere d elliptical profile, and not the typically used spherical curvatures. [10] Virtual Antenna Beamforming (VAB) for Radar Systems by Using Orthogonal Coding Waveforms An original way of creating virtual transmitting and receiving radar antenna beams at the same time is to use orthogonal coding waveforms from the antenna elements and deal out digitally their echoes at the receiver. Many virtual transmitting-receiving radar antenna beams can be produced at the same time by using the same quantity of beamforming filters with no any increase on the transmitted power or antenna gain or resolution loss. Both virtually formed antenna beams and common phased arrays of equal size are able to achieve the same antenna gains and spatial resolutions. Since the antenna radiation pattern can be completed almost isotropic, the original system has low probability of intercept (LPI) property. While the transmitting and receiving beams are both virtually implemented through digital filtering, expensive radiation phase shift used in phased arrays is unnecessary for beam scanning in this actual system. [11] Compact Two-Layer Rotman Lens-Fed Microstrip Antenna Array at 24 GHz A new way of realizing a compact Rotman lens-fed antenna array is presented in this paper. The lens-fed antenna has the construction of two layers, which is an original option of reducing the Rotman lens size. This is performed at 24 GHz approaching automotive sensing radar. The lens has a metal layer on the top, a dielectric, a regular ground, a dielectric, and a metal layer on the bottom, in sequential order. The antennas are put on the top layer, while the layout of the lens body is positioned on the bottom layer. They are both connected electrically via slot transitions. This structure, composed of two layers, offers many advantages, because it reduces the entire size of the lens, as well as the total loss of the delay lines, as the lines can be as short and straight as possible. This two-layer Rotman lens-fed antenna array is evaluated in terms of scattering parameters and beam patterns. [12] Cylindrical arrays with electronic beam scanning In order to provide a continuously 360 degrees scan by the directional pattern of a cylindrical array using electronic means, there are several methods proposed. It is important that the circular aperture distribution related to the far-field directional pattern is subjected to rotation comparative to the fixed array. With the intention of synthesizing appropriate forms of directional pattern, there are various techniques describing the independent control of the amplitude and phase of the aperture distributio

Pressure Ulcer Care Essay

The aetiology of pressure ulcers is in some parts insubstantial due to the numerous influences that apply to the formation of a pressure ulcer. There are, none the less, a diverse array of contributing factors that have been proven to impair the structure of the skin and disrupt the healing processes, for example heart complications, lack of mobility, nutrition, sensory loss, temperature and age effecting the skins texture and strength. The most significant rationale behind the choice of clinical skill is to assist in the advancement of knowledge base, as Ali & Atkin (2004, p. 03) accurately specify, ‘we need to use our increasing knowledge base to transform service provision and provide better primary care’. As health professionals it needs to be realised that we are a vital link between patients and other specialised health care services, Morison (2001, p. 4) points out the importance of, ‘health care professionals as patient advocates in relation to tissue v iability services’, if we do not make it our duty to be knowledgeable of what options our patients have it is impossible to administer care holistically as if our duty as a health care professional. In recent studies it has shown that pressure ulcers are most prominent with surgical patients, research has also shown that the surgical patient develops a pressure ulcer 8 times more than the non surgical patient (Pulskamp, 2007). Interestingly it shows that not only are pressure ulcers observed in older patients but just as often in the younger ago groups, with an increase in occurrence in those who receive neck and head surgeries (Bader et al, 2005), In a study is it is shown that adaptation to the operating table diminished sharply the incidence of pressure ulcer development. Bader et al found that often Pressure ulcers are observed after 2 weeks of being admitted, this then contradicts the theory that ‘pressure ulcers are caused by inadequate nursing care’, this then can only suggest that pressure ulcers develop during an operation, during periods of treatment or during investigations, for example X-ray departments where the mattresses are not adapted to the variety of different patients with a different variety of problems. To reduce occurrence and risk there must be put in place preventative measures in terms of risk assessments but as Pulskamp (2007) points out, ‘There is no validated tool to predict risk of pressure ulcers in the surgical patient’. There are numerous pressure ulcer risk assessment tools in use, yet none being significantly more preferred than others and each with particular strengths and weaknesses. In 2003 the National Institution for Clinical Excellence produced the guidelines, ‘pressure ulcer risk assessment and prevention, including the use of pressure relieving devices (beds, mattresses and overlays) for the prevention of pressure ulcers in primary and secondary care’. They suggest that in order to maximise the effectiveness of the guidelines, they should be enhanced by implementing them in working partnerships such as tissue viability teams. The aim of the guidelines, as LittleJohns & Rawlins (2005, p. 9) highlight, are to ‘inform clinical practice and to direct clinical decision making in order to improve patient outcomes with regard to pressure ulcer prevention and management’. To encourage the use of this guideline the National Institution of Clinical Excellence suggest, ‘incorporating guidance into continuing professional development programmes (in order to) further encourage its use in clinical practice’ (LittleJohns & Ra wlins, 2005, p. 100). After initial implementation an audit was arried out which highlighted significant pitfalls in implementation of the guidelines in clinical practice, for example being unable to record timings or risk assessments, repositioning charts not being used and seating assessments n out being carried out, this highlights the need for flexibility in future risk assessments as clinical issues often arise and cannot be avoided in the busy schedules of health care professionals and can often become barriers to the effective implementation there for making the correct use of the guidelines impossible risks unattended concerning the patients. They also voice the fear that the guidelines are simplifying clinical decision making and urge professionals to adopt any particular recommendations in light of such issues as available resources, local policies, patient circumstance and updates research findings. The European Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel quick reference guidelines on prevention for developing pressure ulcers (2009) have a in depth and diverse approach on the assessment of pressure sores and contributing factors, their guidelines investigate not only the treatment of pressure ulcers but use of pressure ulcer prevention devices and wound management with a grading system to reflect the severity of the sore. The advisory panel suggests that, ‘pressure ulcers need to be assessed in the context of the patients overall condition’, they also identify ‘nutrition, pain and psychosocial factors as potential areas of complication, looking into the localization, grade, size, wound bed, exudates, pain and status of the surrounding skin’ (Dealey, 2005, p. 138). One of the pitfalls of this particular assessment strategies is the actual analysis of the pressure ulcer itself, one must have gained adequate back ground knowledge and experience on the analysis of a sore and the most suitable wound management product (for example dressings or antibiotics if the wound appears infected) to truly be able to grade it, Dealey (2005, p. 142) herself discusses, ‘accurate assessment is necessary in order to select a suitable wound management product’.

Narrative report on educational tour Essay

INTRODUCTION The purpose of our educational tour is to expose students in actual industries, manufacturing companies in order to acquire knowledge, opportunities, experience rather than sitting alone in a four corner classroom. The site visit location was Villar Foundation (Organic Herbal Garden, Factory of garbage chairs, Coconet coir and Peat Enterprise, The water Hyacinth Weaving Enterprise) Lola Corazon Leisure Farm, Hansa Toys and Azucarera de Tarlac. The waste plastic factory was our first stop. The Villar Foundation and the local community are in charge of collecting and segregating the plastic wastes, which are then shredded, washed, dried, melted and molded in the plant which can be fashioned to look like wooden pieces and comes with replaceable parts amazingly!. That envirotech’s plant can produce 1,000 armchair/month. About 20-24 kilos of mixed soft plastics. That finished product has a 20 year lifespan. Our second stop was the Coconet factory. It was the coconut husks converted to a coco net. It comes from near markets that was given by vendors. The fiber can be extracted through a decorticating machine, the decorticated coconut will be air dried, then the fiber and the dust will be separ ated through dusting, the fiber will be twined and lastly they’ll weave it to make a coco net. To lessen the waste in Las Pinas produces the Villar Foundation also started a project to turn wet waste into soil conditioners and Vermicompost through composting. The process is to mix wet waste, mostly food with coconut dust and trichodema fungi that produces enzymes that helps in composting. The Water Hyacinth weaving enterprise was our third stop. in cleaning the river was the water hyacinths also known as water lilies that floats on the river and traps more wastes and causes flood when it rains. They found a solution by transforming water lilies into beautiful pieces of arts like decorations and baskets. Next destination was in Hansa Toys. Artists create each Hansa animal from portraits of the creature in its natural habitat that is made of PLASTICS. Most fabrics are custom designed and exclusively manufactured to HANSA’S exacting specifications. The animals coats are meticulously hand-cut and trimmed, never stamped out by machine.The animals are sewn inside out, resulting in the minimization of seams. This development ofan exceptional  internal stitching method allows the Hansa artisans create effects like muscle tone and features unique to each creature. On average, there are 42 separate pieces required to make each animal. (Some animals have as many as 240 different parts!) The subtle coloring on the animals is hand painted or airbrushed by specially trained Hansa artisans.Each animal is hand finished with loving detail to give them the life like look yet sweet face and cuddly feel that is unmistakably HANSA.All animals are made with custom designed all man-made plush material made from high pile 100% Modacrylic fiber Kanecaron Brand with backing material of polyster 150/48F. Last was the Azucarera de Tarlac. It is one of the best integrated sugar manufacturing plants producing both raw and refined sugar, alcohol, liquid carbon dioxide, and yeast in the Philippines. KNOWLEDGE ACQUIRED That memorable tour advocate us of green living. In Villar Foundation they converted raw materials into something useful they not just only cleaning and protecting environment but also providing a livelihood to the poor. By promoting this 1 less child on the streets, 1 less person without a job, 1 less family without a home, 1 less worker stranded overseas, and most important 1 more Filipino save from poverty. Hansa toys says â€Å" Toys that educates the heart† Believing that today’s children will play a vital role in the fate of wildlife, and that toys can be an important tool in forming children’s values, they have created the â€Å"Endangered Animals Collection† . They inspire children and adults (all ages) to love and learn about wild animals and they hope to inspire a life-long commitment to widelife conservation. Hence environment may be defined as â€Å"the sum of all social, cultural, economical, biological, physical and chemical factors surrounding the ‘man’ to give necessary protection to him.† A clean environment is very necessary to live a peaceful and healthy life. But our environment is getting dirty day by day because of some negligence of human beings. It is an issue which everyone must know about especially  our kids. An environment is the natural surroundings which help life to grow, nourish and destroy on this planet earth. Natural environment plays a great role in the existence of life on earth and it helps human beings, animals and other living things to grow and develop naturally. But due to some bad and selfish activities of the human beings, our environment is getting affected. It is the most important topic that everyone must know how to protect our environment to keep it safe forever as well as ensure the nature’s balance on this planet to continue the existence of life. RECOMMENDATION Everyone can do a big change to create a better environment. Why people having diseases? This is because of you, me, US! even a single wrap of candy can we just keep in our pocket for a while then throw it in a proper garbage can. The earth is dying it is an open reality to everybody. The earth is sick and if we can’t control its sickness we will die too. Just imagine, without a sustainable environment we will have nothing. The dirt we’re throwing away always comes back to us it means nature has his own way of taking revenge. Let us not be blind or deaf to this problem. We should take part because if not, we may be causing our own extinction

Social Networking and Japanese Children - 1056 Words

Background Social networking is not new, but really a part of human culture ever since prehistory. However, social networking to the nth level, globally and through the Internet, is clearly a late-20th, early 21st century, phenomenon. Social networks are social structures in which there are ties between individuals. These individuals form clusters of like-minded interests, commonalities, and/or cultural communities. Modern social networking sites began to become extremely popular when two things happened: 1) there was a threshold of users who had the technology for reliable and regular access to the Internet, and; 2) when technology allowed for the speed and ease of use so that even younger users would have the ability to utilize these networks to evolve in their own relationships (Scott, 2000). Thus, it is not only the Internet that drives usage of these networks, but miniaturization of telecommunications technology, video, inexpensive access, international availability, and cultura l acceptance. A logical outgrowth of this became social networking services, or online platforms that assist users in building networks or relations (Facebook, My Space, Twitter, etc.). These sites have become international in scope, and now attract more than (Boyd and Ellison, 2007). Japan, for instance, has a 78.4 per cent penetration of internet users, equivalent to about 99.2 million users. 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The society is becoming more and more techRead MoreFactors in Discrimmination against Diversity1545 Words   |  6 Pages no matter the ethnicity, they would automatically assume that person is Chinese demonstrating the ignorance of people regarding different ethnicities. I believe a persons race to be purely based on physical characteristics and is completely a social construction. When asked about someone’s race, people usually respond simply with black, white or Asian, with no consideration of what they are. The article, â€Å"The New White People’s Burden† is an example of how Americans view other races. It shows

Compromise and Marriage in Pride and Prejudice Essay...

Compromise and Marriage in Pride and Prejudice It is not unusual for an individual to disagree with social customs or expectations. Some people are only happy when they can rebel against society. Most mature adults eventually realize that compromise is necessary to achieve happiness. This is the case in the early nineteenth century England setting of Pride and Prejudice, by Jane Austen. In the novel, Miss Elizabeth Bennet is a lively, independent woman, whose familys financial situation and whose strong mindedness suggest that she may never marry. Mr. Darcy, is a rigid and proper man, who falls in love with Elizabeth, despite their differences. By the end of the novel, Elizabeth and Darcy learn to compromise, and, in doing†¦show more content†¦She reveals these sentiments through Charlotte remarks concerning her marriage to Mr. Collins. I am not romantic you know. I never was. I ask only a comfortable home; and considering Mr. Collins character, connections, and situation in life, I am convinced that my chance of happiness is as fair, as most people can boast on entering the marriage state. (Austen, 95) Elizabeth, as Sherry points out, is not particularly romantic either, however unlike Charlotte, Elizabeth has a certain picture of an ideal marriage in her mind, and therefore would never marry for reasons other than love. We assume that since Elizabeth is the main character, this is how Jane Austen sees marriage. Since Elizabeth would not marry without love, we can also assume that Jane Austen sees what Charlotte does as immoral. Elizabeth also feels that marriages formed by passion alone are just as bad as marriages formed without love. 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The Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne Essay - 1872 Words

In The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne, the main characters have different kinds of burdens to carry depending on their level of ownership over their actions and identity. Dimmesdale has the worst burden to bear because he did not own up to his actions until the very end, Hester has to adjust to the punishment that the Puritans gave her, and Pearl has no burden because she is honest. Throughout the novel, they face different obstacles that contribute to their everyday lives that makes it hard to process everything at once. It’s also to show how the characters were able to face the problems and deal with them Hawthorne shows that Dimmesdale bears the worst burden because his health was in danger and he eventually dies after he tells the truth. Before that, he was considered a hypocrite because he would give speeches asking Hester to reveal who the father was when in reality it was him. This made his burden even worse because he had to keep in the guilt that forced him to get sick and self-torture. Through the time that Hester and Dimmesdale s had committed adultery, Dimmesdale would enforce Hester, to tell the truth of who the father was because he felt that it would be able to change the way in which he would feel. Hawthorne describes the scene in which they were both talking back and forth to each other in front of the community â€Å"Be not silent from any mistaken pity and tenderness for him; for, believe me, Hester, though he were to step down from a high place, standShow MoreRelatedThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1242 Words   |  5 PagesLYS PAUL Modern Literature Ms. Gordon The Scarlet Letter The scarlet letter is book written by Nathaniel Hawthorne who is known as one the most studied writers because of his use of allegory and symbolism. He was born on July 4, 1804 in the family of Nathaniel, his father, and Elizabeth Clark Hathorne his mother. 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The time frame of the puritans resulted in Hawthorne eventually thinkingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne999 Words   |  4 Pages Nathaniel Hawthorne is the author of the prodigious book entitled The Scarlet Letter. In The Scarlet Letter, Hester Prynne commits adultery with Reverend Arthur Dimmesdale. Her husband, Roger Chillingworth, soon finds out about the incident after it becomes clear that she is pregnant. The whole town finds out and Hester is tried and punished. Meanwhile, Roger Chillingworth goes out then on a mission to get revenge by becoming a doctor and misprescribing Dimmesdale. He does this to torture DimmesdaleRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter, by Nathaniel Hawthorne1037 Words   |  5 Pagesthat human nature knows right from wrong, but is naturally evil and that no man is entirely â€Å"good†. 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Similar to Hester and Dimmesdale, Roger Chillingworth allows his emotions to influence his life; however, his influence came as the result of hi s anger. Throughout the book, Hawthorne documents how Dimmesdale and Hester s different ways of dealingRead MoreThe Scarlet Letter By Nathaniel Hawthorne1714 Words   |  7 PagesSome two hundred years following the course of events in the infamous and rigid Puritan Massachusetts Colony in the 1600s, Nathaniel Hawthorne, descendant of a Puritan magistrate, in the 19th century, published The Scarlet Letter. Wherein such work, Hawthorne offered a social critique against 17th Massachusetts through the use of complex and dynamic characters and literary Romanticism to shed light on said society’s inherent contradiction to natural order and natural law. In his conclusive statements

Cloning Essay Thesis Example For Students

Cloning Essay Thesis For the first time the cloning of a whole human being seems really possible. It is absolutely necessary to consider the harm that can be done and move to curb abuses. Also, it is important to understand some of the theory underlying the desire to build a better human. The Ethical Downside of Cloning With recent developments in the cloning of the first whole mammal with Dolly the Sheep, for the first time the cloning a whole human being seems really possible. For years, clones have been the subject of popular fiction, but the technology was lacking. Now the ethics of doing so must be carefully considered. While almost all world health and religious bodies are coming out in opposition to the idea, it must be accepted that someone somewhere will try it. Thus, it is absolutely necessary to consider the harm that can be done and move to curb abuses. What immediately springs to mind for most people with the possibility of cloning whole people is the ideas of creating supermen or a master r ace which dominated the Nazis. But the theories of eugenics from which they operated were also touted in America and the rest of the Western world. Thus, it is important to understand some of the theory underlying the desire to build a better human. Eugenics is concerned with the social direction of human evolution. A distinction is made between positive and negative eugenics. Positive eugenics aims to increase reproduction of individuals who have traits, such as high intelligence and physical strength or fitness, which are considered to be valuable to society. Negative eugenics seeks to decrease reproduction among people believed to be inferior or below average mentally and physically (Glass). Cloning for better humanity, then, is normally associated with positive eugenics. Overall, since the Nazi experience, eugenics as a movement has been largely discredited, but the ideas still linger and many of the same arguments for cloning humans are used today, but with protests that they a re not related to the abuses of the Eugenics proponents of the 1920s and 30s. The goal of eugenics was to create a superior human being, and with this creation, to in time create a superior human race. The First International Congress for Eugenics was held in 1912 in London. Rather than being a fringe movement, it was hailed by a number of luminaries of the day. For example, Charles Darwins son presided, while Winston Churchill led the British delegation. Among the Americans present were the presidents of Harvard and Stanford universities and Alexander Graham Bell. The Germans present advocated racial hygiene, which later became Nazi policy. According to historian Stefan Kuhl, German eugenecists enjoyed a special relationship with their counterparts from the United States (Nazi Eugenic). The beliefs of these groups contain elements that are still being brought up in discussions of cloning humans. They included trust that selective breeding and choice of genetic traits is an effectiv e means of improving the overall quality of the human species, the conviction that heredity directly determines physical, physiological, personality, and mental traits in adults, and a belief in the inherent inferiority of some races and social classes and superiority of others (Allen). In the early Thirties, it was believed that the race, indeed the world, needed to be purified of those elements of humanity that would bring the breeding pool down. To that end, the crippled, the mentally deficient, sufferers of hereditary diseases, and those thought to be racially inferior were to be stopped from breeding. Forced sterilization was one means of accomplishing this goal. Euthanasia, the killing of people for the greater good, was also a means of purging the world of inferior people. Germany adopted a sterilization law in 1933, which made people with such hereditary disabilities as Huntingtons Corea, feeble-mindedness, blindness and deafness, grave bodily deformity, and hereditary alcoh olism subject to forced sterilization for the good of the people (Lifton 301). Today many of these same subjects are being addressed with therapeutic abortions and genetics counseling. In America, breeding for a better race was supported. For example, the Pioneer Fund, an American eugenics foundation, proposed that American pilots should be encouraged to have more children by paying them stipends. They believed that pilots of the U.S. Army are especially valuable, that they should procreate and not inferior members of American people (Nazi Eugenic). This idea of creating a group of better soldiers has been one of the theoretical uses of cloning also. Parallel to the arguments today, in the 1920s and 30s, many scientists enthusiastically thought that they could and should apply genetics and population science to political issues. Even without the possibility of actually creating human beings, they saw the potential for controlling where humanity would go and what kind of people shoul d be allowed to be made (Nazi Eugenic). A related problem is that what traits a culture values are not fixed. They change with the nature of the economy and technology, as well as with fashion. Two hundred years ago, society would have favored the cloning of men with strong backs and women who were built for childbearing since those were the physical types needed to open a new land. With the rise of industrialism and later high technology, brainpower became more valuable. With cloning, potentially it would be up to some kind of population engineers like the eugenicists to determine what kind of people should be allowed to take over humanity (Kluger and Thompson). There are two general possibilities in todays society for cloning abuses: first is the abuse, which would be fostered by groups or governments and second is the abuses, which would be done by individuals for their own personal reasons. The examples of the Eugenics Movements and the Nazi policies fall into the former categor y. Because of the horrors already displayed there and the evil attached to them, the chances of wide scale governmental cloning are less likely. Already, most of the major world health organizations and a number of governments have moved to ban such cloning in order to prevent a reoccurrence of the kind of wrongheaded thinking which would use cloning to build armies or create a super-race. For example, France and Germany have called for total bans on human cloning, citing the precedents of the Nazi past the dangers of abuse of the process (Thomasson). Germany, in fact, has a ban on cloning in place. In the United States, there are bills pending in both houses of Congress to ban cloning, and a new National Bio-ethics Advisory Commission is currently examining clonings moral and legal implications. Various states have also proposed legislation banning further testing or research into human cloning (Stolberg). In addition, the World Health Organization, a part of the United Nations, ha s called for a total ban, as has the Vatican (Vatican). President Clinton took independent action pending the passage of legislation to ban any efforts to clone humans with federally funded research, and also asked privately funded scientists to abide by a voluntary moratorium for at least 90 days (Kenen). Individual abuses of cloning, however, also have social ramifications. The issue of experimentation is not dead in human cloning. While one aspect of cloning is the desire to create superior human beings, another expressed desire is to create potential suppliers of spare parts. One of the large questions is whether clones would be treated as fully human or as a means to someone elses end. Some experts suggest that cloning would be justified to replace a dead child or to help save someone dying of an incurable disease through organ or marrow transplant (Sharp and Sharn). For example, parents might decide to clone a child with a fatal disease in order to help save the first child. W hile such cloning for harvest of a one-of-a-kind organ such as a heart is not considered likely to be allowed, the possibility exists. Even if an organ such as a kidney, however, is harvested, to take it from another child created for that purpose is to arguably abuse it. Again, the issue of whether the child is fully human with all the same rights is at issue. Also involved in that case is how the child will be treated. Would it forever be a second class sibling, cared for but not loved as a true child? (Kluger and Thompson). Indeed, the issue of the division of humanity into the natural and the unnatural is a great concern. It is entirely possible that there would be the creation of a new and stigmatized social class of The Clones (Herbert, Sheler, and Watson). Another danger is the sort of homemade eugenics where families decide the traits and capacities they want in their children. Genetic analysis of embryos may give parents the opportunity to select the best of their fertilize d embryos, whatever their definition of best, and destroying the rest (Kevles). Such designer children would potentially skew the entire development of humanity. Also, there are a number of groups already looking upon cloning as a way to further their own agendas. Under the flag of defending reproductive rights, certain gay rights advocates are pushing the idea of cloning as a means of preserving homosexuality in a general population which might otherwise decide to eliminate it. Also, cloning has been recognized as giving women complete control over reproduction, possibly eliminating the need for men all together (Manning). Essentially clones are twins to their DNA donors. As such, the possibility is raised that adults who clone themselves set themselves up to be fathers or mothers to their twins. This raises a host of questions. There is, after all, the possibility that much of the cloning to be done will be for purposes of ego. Generally, it is expected that either adults will att empt to clone themselves so that they may have immortality in a sense. This is also possible with the idea that someone of great intelligence or ability should be preserved for a second round. For example, the common metaphor is should we not create as many Einsteins as possible. But there is little agreement as to how much of the success of great thinkers is attributable to genetics and how much to environment, the era when they live, and factors included in their individual raising. Even if genetics were a major factor, ethicists say that diversity is the main factor in our population that leads to the rise of great men in any field (Kluger and Thompson). One of the dangers of cloning is that it exactly threatens this diversity. Nevertheless, clones would not be exact copies of their donors. Indeed, even if society desired a hundred Einsteins, there is no guarantee that the clones would find the same path to physics or even become more than ordinary citizens (Herbert, Sheler, and Watson). Another ethical concern is the unknown ramifications for the clones themselves. It is known that over a lifetime, DNA can degrade within a person, causing changes in the sequence as continued replication takes a toll. Where cloning takes place with adult DNA, it is not yet known whether this would affect the life span of the child created (Herbert, Sheler, and Watson). Also at issue is the possibility that clones would be more subject to disease, and indeed that humanity itself might have greater susceptibility if cloning were to become widespread. Science has long known that when living things share the exact same genetic structure, they become much more vulnerable to viral diseases. Sexual reproduction with its combining of the genes of both parents helps keep the immune system vital and holds communicable diseases at bay. With the increase in killer viruses, this is of major concern (Kenen). If cloning takes place before sufficient animal studies are undertaken, then the re is a risk to the clone that is another reason for not allowing the procedure until more is known. Another disturbing possibility with cloning is the control of the source of the DNA. Since everyone gives off cells all the time naturally, as in lost hairs or skin cells, it is conceivable that a person could be cloned without their knowledge or consent. Each cell given off contains a full complement of DNA. Even such things as blood samples or a trip to the dentist could be the source for such activity. While such action would be essentially criminal, there is no way to stop it from a scientific standpoint. Such drive-by cloning could allow people to fulfill a number of fantasies for the unscrupulous. The commercial value of an athletic pedigree or a well known singing voice, or the ability to have children of otherwise impossible parents would make such cloning attractive to certain segments of society who prey on others for money (Herbert, Sheler, and Watson). Similarly, it is th eoretically possible to clone the dead. While there are more problems with this technologically, if the cells were taken soon after death, the DNA might be harvested and frozen for later use. The social and ramifications of this are not pleasant, and the effects on any child so produced might well be psychologically scarring (Herbert, Sheler, and Watson). Thus, human cloning has a number of ethical pitfalls. It has been shown through human history that there are many people, individually, in groups, or as governments, who wish to control the future of humanity through its biology. The theories of eugenics have made given structure to these desires, and the greatest danger in them is the idea that humanity should be shaped to some specific ideological or biological model based on preconceived ideas of what the future holds. In reality, no one knows what environmental or social situations humanity will face in the future. Diversity has been the best protector of mankind, making it pos sible for the population to have all the elements available at any time for what situations must be met. Cloning threatens that diversity, and also threatens our ideas of what it is to be human. Thus, before cloning is allowed, it is absolutely necessary to consider the harm that can be done and move to curb abuses. Works Cited Allen, Garland E. Science Misapplied: The Eugenics Age Revisited. Current. 1 Dec. 1996. Online. Electric Library. Glass, H. Bentley. Eugenics. Colliers Encyclopedia CD-ROM. 28 Feb. 1996. Herbert, Wray, Sheler, Jeffery L., and Watson, Traci. The World After Cloning. U.S. News ; World Report. 10 Mar. 1997. Online. Electric Library. Kenen, Joanne. Clintons Bioethics Panel Takes Up Cloning Debate. Reuters News Service, 13 Mar. 1997. Online. Electric Library. Kevles, Daniel. Controlling the Genetic Arsenal. Wilson Quarterly. 1 Apr 1992. Online. Electric Library. Kluger, Jeffrey, and Thompson, Dick. Will We Follow the Sheep? Time. 10 Mar. 1997. Online. Electric Lib rary. Lifton, Robert Jay, and Hackett, Amy. Nazi Doctors. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Ed. Gutman, Yisrael, and Michael Berenbaum, eds. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994. 301-315. Manning, Anita. Pressing a Right to Clone Humans Some Gays Foresee Reproduction Option. USA TODAY, 6 Mar. 1997. Online. Electric Library. Nazi Eugenic Racial Hygiene Also Recognized in America. All Things Considered. Robert Siegel, host. Stefan Kuhl, guest. National Public Radio. 9 Mar. 1994. Sharp, Deborah, and Sharn, Lori. Big Questions for Humanity. USA TODAY, 25 Feb. 1997. Stolberg, Sheryl. Reproductive Research Far Outpaces Public Policy. Los Angeles Times, 29 Apr. 1997. Online. Electric Library. Thomasson, Emma. Germans Press for Ban on Human Cloning. Reuters News Service. 29 Apr. 1997. Online. America Online. Vatican Calls for Global Ban on Human Cloning. Reuters News Service, 26 Feb. 1997. Online. Electric Library.Words/ Pages : 2,591 / 24 Sir Gawain And The Green Knight: Stanza 74 Essay